Clement, Bishop/Presbyter of Rome (late first century: d. ca. 100) In his Letter to Corinth, "1 Clement" (ca. 95), he deals with the issue of establishing an orderly (apostolic) succession of leaders among the elders and speaks against Judaizing and docetic influences in Corinth. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (fl. early 100s) Ignatius wrote a number of letters while on the way to Rome to be executed.  In these, he urges the churches to build a ministerial pattern of one bishop and several presbyters and deacons.  The bishop was to have the key responsibility of maintaining the unity of the church and its doctrines against the diverse interests pulling at the churches. The Martyrdom of St. Ignatius Polycarp (martyred. ca. 160) Polycarp was reputed to be a direct disciple of the apostle John.  He eventually became Bishop of Smyrna. The story of  his martyrdom as an old man was widely circulated throughout the early church as a testimony of faith. The Martyrdom of Polycarp Justin "Martyr" (d. 165) Justin underwent his own philosophical/spiritual journey as a young man. Along the way he studied Stoicism, Aristotelianism, Pythagorism, Platonism. He finally became a convert to Christianity on the basis of the integrity and bravery of its martyrs. Became a teacher in Rome--and died a martyr there rather than sacrifice to the gods. He took up the task of relating Christianity to Greek philosophy--especially Platonism (which he still respected). He stressed (along with the gospel-writer John) that Christ was the Logos. He claimed also that Plato had been inspired by the Old Testament. And finally he put forth the idea that Christianity was the completion of what earlier Greek philosophers were trying to arrive at. The Martyrdom of Justin Martyr Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons (ca. 130-202) Irenaeus was born into a Greek Christian family of Asia Minor. He became a disciple of Polycarp--but was also influenced by Justin's philosophy. He moved to Lyons (Gaul or France) as a young man, becoming a presbyter there--in 177 succeeding the martyred bishop and living on at Lyons until his death possibly at the beginning of the 200s. He took up the theological task of refuting the Gnostic heresy.  His writings give us much of our knowledge (negatively biased, of course) of the Gnostics.  The Gnostic claim of possessing special secret knowledge not given to other Christians he refuted with the claim that the apostles would have passed such knowledge on to the churches they themselves founded and loved--if such knowledge had actually existed. Also--he noted that the apostolic churches all proclaimed the same set of doctrines out of a well recognized set of apostolic writings (the New Testament)--outweighing, by way of true authority, the ridiculous and contradictory innovations of the Gnostics and their writings. He was opposed to Montanism--but urged the church not to condemn this movement without careful thought on the matter. Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens) (ca. 150-215) He was born a Greek pagan, but converted to Christianity and studied under a number of Christian teachers--principally Pantaenus, head of the Christian school in Alexandria (whom he succeeded in around 190) Egypt at the time was falling heavily under the influence of Gnosticism. Clement took up the cause of defending orthodox Christianity through demonstrating its conformity to well accepted Greek philosophy--proving orthodox Christianity to be thus a higher version of Christianity (and also the consummation of Greek philosophy). Clement's answer to Gnosticism was to demonstrate true Christian "gnosis": the discipline of ethical living and the disciplined contemplation of God. But Clement himself was subject to some of the Gnostic negative views about the natural life: Jesus surely did not need to eat, drink and sleep like mere mortals--but did so that his disciples might not get the wrong idea about him (docetism). He strongly laid the case for the impassability (emotionlessness) of God--which was also the vision of God held by the Greek philosophers--and also the ideal of the Christian seeking after God. We also are beholden to him for our knowledge today about certain aspects of the ancient Greek mystery religions and popular philosophies of the day.  His Exhortation to the Heathens/Greeks is a careful, point by point refutation of the major doctrines of these religious and philosophical movements.  He writes so knowledgeably because he himself had once been a part of their world.  He still thought highly of Greek philosophy and believed that Plato and others had helped opened the way for the Gospel through their own doctrines which were not necessarily in opposition to the Gospel. Tertullian (ca. 160-225) Tertullian was a Latin Carthaginian who was born a pagan and trained in rhetoric and the law. He converted to Christianity just before the turn of the century. He seems to have remained all his life a teacher--probably never becoming a bishop or even presbyter. But he was an excellent writer in Latin--and very influential in formulating Latin theology. He tended to be a religious legalist who dedicated himself to the idea that the faith should be confined tightly within the parameters of a well worked out line of Orthodox theology. Indeed, he demonstrated an (unacknowledged) intellectual debt to Stoicism--with all its religious rigorousness. He was a very strong opponent of monarchianism (Sabellius)--laying out one of the earliest Orthodox statements on the nature of the Trinity. However, he departed from the Greek Christian theologians (such as Justin) who saw Christianity as being in harmony with Greek philosophy, noting the distinction which exists between rational knowledge and faith; faith is God-given and not open to the speculations of the human mind. Eventually he became a Christian Montanist--admiring its moral rigor. Indeed, he became very critical of the "established" church for its leniency in dealing with on-going sins of Christians--even changing his mind about the possibility of a second repentance for a back-slider. Origen (ca. 185-254) Origen was born into a Christian family in Alexandria. His father was martyred in 202--leaving a very deep impression on Origen. He studied under Neo-Platonist Ammonius Saccas (also teacher of Plotinus) and lived in Alexandria as a teacher at the catechetical school, until he had a falling out with the Alexandrian bishop. He then moved to Caesarea in Palestine where he continued his work. He lived the life--up until he began to have second thoughts on the matter as an older man--of an ascetic. He remained true to the faith, suffering severe torture in the Decian persecution of (249-251)--dying a few years later from the effects of this treatment. Origen was a prolific expositor of the Bible (carefully studying Scripture verse by verse). But he viewed its content as allegory--used to lead the reader to a "deeper," more spiritual meaning of Scripture. [Note: this was a principle well established in Greek learning and used widely in the study of the ancient Greek legends. Thus Philo used this in his commentaries on the Jewish Scriptures. However, this put Origen in strong distinction to the attitudes of the more literalist Tertullian on the matter!] As a catechetical teacher (preparing those who were about to enter the church), Origen was well aware of and loyal to the doctrines of Christian Orthodoxy--though (in keeping with the intellectual spirit of Greek learning) he felt that the scholar had the call to pass imaginatively beyond these foundational ideas--not so as to contradict them, but to offer supplementary understanding). His imaginatively speculative mind would get him in trouble with Orthodoxy in a later age--for many of his ideas were later condemned as heretical: thus for instance, the old Socratic theory that the soul exists independently of the body and enters it at birth; or the universalist notion that in the end all would be saved; or some very imaginative views on the Trinity! He saw Jesus' redemptive death on the cross as an idea of salvation suitable for the common lot of people. But for higher thinkers, he believed that Jesus' redemptive purpose was lodged in the idea of the believer being raised to the level of God through the contemplation of God (an idea that would reappear in medieval mysticism). The higher soul understands the importance of moving from the imperfect world of becoming (the world of flux and change) to the perfect world of pure being (eternal, unchanging, impassible--like God). This contemplative path is the path of higher minds. He was a trinitarian--in opposition to the monarchianists. Father, Son and Holy Spirit are three hypostases (translated to the Latin as "persons"). The Son however was begotten of the Father not as a single historical event--but as an on-going event since the beginning of eternity. But in line with classic Greek philosophy, he believed that creation was eternal--not made. Beings fall from grace and thus from an eternal relationship with God and thus come in need of redemption. The purpose of God's redemptive work in Christ was thus to restore creation to its original state of being in eternal relation with God. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (martyred in 258) Cyprian was born of an upper-class pagan family and destined for a life in high public office--until he converted to Christianity around 245 because of the high moral qualities of the faith. Only a few short years later he was made bishop of Carthage! He then had to lead the Carthaginian church during the Decian persecutions of 249-251--which was aimed first at the death of all Christian bishops. Cyprian, warned in advance, was able to hide--though this gave jealous clergy, who had resented his rapid rise, a chance to criticize him. Then the persecution was directed against all Christians, forcing them, under penalty of death, to sacrifice to the pagan gods--including importantly the emperor-god. A large numbers of Christians apostatized (gave up their Christian faith) under this unexpected pressure. Then when just as suddenly the persecutions ended--the problem emerged of readmitting apostatized Christians back into the fold: who should have the power to readmit them and under what terms? The Church fell into deep internal dissent over the matter. Some of the more rigoristic withdrew in anger at the ease by which Christians were being forgiven for their apostacy--and withdrew to set up separate churches. The unity of the church was threatened. Cyprian pressed for forgiveness and unity--and claimed that only the bishops, not the most rigoristic individuals ("confessors"), had the right to restore the apostates. His views influenced greatly the idea of a church ruled by ordained bishops and not by charismatic individuals. But he also believed that bishops had autonomous authority in their own bishoprics and no bishops stood above any others (such as the Bishop of Rome!) His view on this matter prevailed only temporarily. The Martyrdom of Cyprian

Early Church Fathers